Seljuk Empire

Great Seljuk Empire آلِ سلجوق Āl-e Saljuq
1037–1194
Seljuk Empire at its greatest extent in 1092, upon the death of Malik Shah I.
Status	Empire
Capital	Nishapur (1037–1043) Ray (1043–1051) Isfahan (1051–1118) Merv, Eastern capital (1118–1153) Hamadan, Western capital (1118–1194)
Common languages	Persian (official and court; literature and lingua franca)[1][2][3] Oghuz Turkic (dynastic and military)[4][3][5] Arabic (theology, law and science)[1][3]
Religion	Sunni Islam (Hanafi)
Government	De facto: Independent Sultanate De jure: Under Caliphate[6]
Caliph
• 1031–1075	Al-Qa'im
• 1180–1225	Al-Nasir
Sultan
• 1037–1063	Toghrul I (first)
• 1174–1194	Toghrul III (last)[7]
History
• Tughril formed the state system	1037
• Battle of Dandanaqan	1040
• Battle of Manzikert	1071
• First Crusade	1095–1099
• Battle of Qatwan	1141
• Replaced by the Khwarezmian Empire[8]	1194
Area
1080 est.[9][10]	3,900,000 km2 (1,500,000 sq mi)
Preceded by Succeeded by Oghuz Yabgu State Ghaznavids Buyid dynasty Byzantine Empire Kakuyids Fatimid Caliphate Kara-Khanid Khanate Marwanids Rawadids Sultanate of Rûm Anatolian beyliks Ghurid Dynasty Khwarezmian Empire Atabegs of Azerbaijan Salghurids Bavandids Ayyubid dynasty Burid dynasty Zengid dynasty Danishmends Artuqid dynasty Shah-Armens Shaddadids

History of the Turkic peoples pre–14th century
Tiele people
Göktürks
First Turkic Khaganate 552–581 Western Turkic Khaganate 581–657 (Tokhara Yabghus, Turk Shahis) Eastern Turkic Khaganate 581–650 Second Turkic Khaganate 682–744
Khazar Khaganate 618–1048
Xueyantuo 628–646
Kangar union 659–750
Turk Shahi 665-850
Türgesh Khaganate 699–766
Kimek confederation 743–1035
Uyghur Khaganate 744–840
Oghuz Yabgu State 750–1055
Karluk Yabgu State 756–940
Kara-Khanid Khanate 840–1212
Western Kara-Khanid Eastern Kara-Khanid
Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom 848–1036
Qocho 856–1335
Pecheneg Khanates 860–1091
Ghaznavid Empire 963–1186
Seljuk Empire 1037–1194
Sultanate of Rum
Cuman–Kipchak confederation 1067–1239
Khwarazmian Empire 1077–1231
Kerait Khanate 11th century–13th century
Delhi Sultanate 1206–1526
Mamluk dynasty Khalji dynasty Tughlaq dynasty
Qarlughid Kingdom 1224–1266
Golden Horde 1240s–1502
Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo) 1250–1517
Bahri dynasty

The Great Seljuk Empire^[11][a] (Persian: آل سلجوق‎, romanized: Āl-e Saljuq, lit. 'House of Saljuq'), or the Seljuk Empire, was a high medieval Turko-Persian^[14] Sunni Muslim empire, originating from the Qiniq branch of Oghuz Turks.^[15] At the time of its greatest extent, the Seljuk Empire controlled a vast area, stretching from western Anatolia and the Levant in the west to the Hindu Kush in the east, and from Central Asia in the north to the Persian Gulf in the south.

The Seljuk empire was founded in 1037 by Tughril Beg (990–1063) and his brother Chaghri Beg (989–1060). From their homelands near the Aral Sea, the Seljuks advanced first into Khorasan and then into mainland Persia, before eventually conquering Baghdad and eastern Anatolia. The Seljuks won the battle of Manzikert in 1071, and then conquered most of the rest of Anatolia, wresting it from the Byzantine Empire. This was one of the impetuses for the First Crusade (1095–1099). The Seljuk empire began to decline in the 1140s, and by 1194 had been supplanted by the Khwarazmian Empire.

Seljuk gave his name to both the empire and the Seljuk dynasty. The Seljuk empire united the fractured political landscape of the eastern Islamic world and played a key role in the first and second crusades. The Seljuks also played an important part in the creation and expansion of multiple art forms during the period in which they had influence.^[16]

Highly Persianized^[17] in culture^[18] and language,^[19] the Seljuks also played an important role in the development of the Turko-Persian tradition,^[20] even exporting Persian culture to Anatolia.^[21][22] The settlement of Turkic tribes in the northwestern peripheral parts of the empire, for the strategic military purpose of fending off invasions from neighboring states, led to the progressive Turkicization of those areas.^[23]

Founder of the dynasty

The apical ancestor of the Seljuks was their bey Seljuk. He was reputed to have served in the Khazar army, under whom, the Seljuks migrated to Khwarezm, near the city of Jend, where they converted to Islam in 985.^[24] Khwarezm, administered by the Ma'munids, was under the nominal control of the Samanid Empire.^[25] By 999 the Samanids fell to the Kara-Khanids in Transoxania, but the Ghaznavids occupied the lands south of the Oxus.^[26] The Seljuks became involved, having supported the last Samanid emir against the Kara-Khanids, in this power struggle in the region before establishing their own independent base.^[27]

Expansion of the empire

Tughril and Chaghri

The grandson of Seljuk was Tughril, under whom the Seljuks wrested an empire from the Ghaznavids. Initially the Seljuks were repulsed by Mahmud and retired to Khwarezm, but Tughril and Chaghri led them to capture Merv and Nishapur (1037/38).^[28] Later they repeatedly raided and traded territory with his successor, Mas'ud, across Khorasan and Balkh.^[29]

In 1040, at the Battle of Dandanaqan, they decisively defeated Mas'ud I of the Ghaznavids, forcing him to abandon most of his western territories to the Seljuks.^[30] By 1046, the Caliph al-Qa'im had sent Tughril a diploma recognizing Seljuk rule over Khurasan.^[31] In 1048–9, the Seljuk Turks, commanded by Ibrahim Yinal, uterine brother of the sultan Tughril, made their first incursion into the Byzantine frontier region of Iberia and clashed with a combined Byzantine-Georgian army of 50,000 at the Battle of Kapetrou on 10 September 1048. The devastation left behind by the Seljuk raid was so fearful that the Byzantine magnate Eustathios Boilas described, in 1051/52, those lands as "foul and unmanageable... inhabited by snakes, scorpions, and wild beasts." The Arab chronicler Ibn al-Athir reports that Ibrahim brought back 100,000 captives and a vast booty loaded on the backs of ten thousand camels.^[32] In 1055, Tughril entered Baghdad and removed the Shia Buyid influence, under a commission from the Abbasid Caliph.^[31]

Alp Arslan

Alp Arslan, the son of Chaghri Beg, expanded significantly upon Tughril's holdings by adding Armenia and Georgia in 1064 and invading the Byzantine Empire in 1068, from which he annexed almost all of Anatolia.^[33] Arslan's decisive victory at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 effectively neutralized the Byzantine resistance to the Turkish invasion of Anatolia,^[34] although the Georgians were able to recover from Alp Arslan's invasion by securing the theme of Iberia. The Byzantine withdrawal from Anatolia brought Georgia in more direct contact with the Seljuks. In 1073 the Seljuk Amirs of Ganja, Dvin and Dmanisi invaded Georgia and were defeated by George II of Georgia, who successfully took the fortress of Kars.^[35] A retaliatory strike by the Seljuk Amir Ahmad defeated the Georgians at Kvelistsikhe.^[36]

Alp Arslan authorized his Turkmen generals to carve their own principalities out of formerly Byzantine Anatolia, as atabegs loyal to him. Within two years the Turkmens had established control as far as the Aegean Sea under numerous beghliks (modern Turkish beyliks): the Saltukids in Northeastern Anatolia, the Shah-Armens and the Mengujekids in Eastern Anatolia, Artuqids in Southeastern Anatolia, Danishmendis in Central Anatolia, Rum Seljuks (Beghlik of Suleyman, which later moved to Central Anatolia) in Western Anatolia, and the Beylik of Tzachas of Smyrna in İzmir (Smyrna).^{[citation needed]}

Malik Shah I

Under Alp Arslan's successor, Malik Shah, and his two Persian viziers, Nizām al-Mulk and Tāj al-Mulk, the Seljuk state expanded in various directions, to the former Iranian border of the days before the Arab invasion, so that it soon bordered China in the east and the Byzantines in the west. Malikshāh was the one who moved the capital from Ray to Isfahan.^[37] It was under his rule and leadership that the Saljūq Empire had reached the height of its successes.^[38] The Iqta military system and the Nizāmīyyah University at Baghdad were established by Nizām al-Mulk, and the reign of Malikshāh was reckoned the golden age of "Great Seljuk". The Abbasid Caliph titled him "The Sultan of the East and West" in 1087. The Assassins (Hashshashin) of Hassan-i Sabāh started to become a force during his era, however, and they assassinated many leading figures in his administration; according to many sources these victims included Nizām al-Mulk.^{[citation needed]}

In 1076 Malik Shah I surged into Georgia and reduced many settlements to ruins. From 1079/80 onward, Georgia was pressured into submitting to Malik-Shah to ensure a precious degree of peace at the price of an annual tribute.^{[citation needed]}

Ahmad Sanjar

Ahmad was the son of Malik Shah I and initially took part in wars of succession against his three brothers and a nephew: Mahmud I, Barkiyaruq, Malik Shah II and Muhammad I Tapar. In 1096, he was tasked to govern the province of Khorasan by his brother Muhammad I.^[39] Over the next several years, Ahmad Sanjar became the ruler of most of Iran (Persia), and eventually in 1118, the sole ruler of the Great Seljuk Empire.^[40]

In 1141, Ahmad marched to eliminate the threat posed by Kara Khitans and faced them in the vicinity of Samarkand at the Battle of Qatwan. He suffered his first defeat in his long career, and as a result lost all Seljuk territory east of the Syr Darya.^[41][42]

Sanjar's as well as the Seljuks' rule collapsed as a consequence of yet another unexpected defeat, this time at the hands of the Seljuks’ own tribe, in 1153.^[40] Sanjar was captured during the battle and held in captivity until 1156.^[43] It brought chaos to the Empire - a situation later exploited by the victorious Turkmens, whose hordes would overrun Khorasan unopposed, wreaking colossal damage on the province and prestige of Sanjar.^[43] Sanjar eventually escaped from captivity in the fall of 1156, but soon died in Merv (present-day Turkmenistan), in 1157. After his death, Turkic rulers, Turkmen tribal forces, and other secondary powers competed for Khorasan, and after a long period of confrontations, the province was finally conquered by Khwarazmians in the early 1200s.^[44]

The Tomb of Ahmed Sanjar was destroyed by the Mongols led by Tolui, who sacked the city of Merv in 1221, killing 700,000 people according to contemporary sources during their catastrophic invasion of Khwarazm;^[45] however, modern scholarship holds such figures to be exaggerated.^[46][47]

Governance

Seljuk power was indeed at its zenith under Malikshāh I, and both the Qarakhanids and Ghaznavids had to acknowledge the overlordship of the Seljuks.^[48] The Seljuk dominion was established over the ancient Sasanian domains, in Iran and Iraq, and included Anatolia, Syria, as well as parts of Central Asia and modern Afghanistan.^[48] Seljuk rule was modelled after the tribal organization common among Turkic and Mongol nomads and resembled a 'family federation' or 'appanage state'.^[48] Under this organization, the leading member of the paramount family assigned family members portions of his domains as autonomous appanages.^[48]

Various emblems and banners have been recorded as having been used by the Seljuks in different periods. Early Seljuks used their traditional emblems, but gradually adopted local Muslim signs and banners. The official flag of the empire was most probably a black flag, similar to that of the Abbasid Caliphate. The flag was decorated with signs, which were either superimposed over it, or placed above the flag.^[49]

Division of empire

When Malikshāh I died in 1092, the empire split as his brother and four sons quarrelled over the apportioning of the empire among themselves. Malikshāh I was succeeded in Anatolia by Kilij Arslan I, who founded the Sultanate of Rum, and in Syria by his brother Tutush I. In Persia he was succeeded by his son Mahmud I, whose reign was contested by his other three brothers Barkiyaruq in Iraq, Muhammad I in Baghdad, and Ahmad Sanjar in Khorasan. When Tutush I died, his sons Radwan and Duqaq inherited Aleppo and Damascus respectively and contested with each other as well, further dividing Syria amongst emirs antagonistic towards each other.^{[citation needed]}

In 1118, the third son Ahmad Sanjar took over the empire. His nephew, the son of Muhammad I, did not recognize his claim to the throne, and Mahmud II proclaimed himself Sultan and established a capital in Baghdad, until 1131 when he was finally officially deposed by Ahmad Sanjar.^{[citation needed]}

Elsewhere in nominal Seljuk territory were the Artuqids in northeastern Syria and northern Mesopotamia; they controlled Jerusalem until 1098. The Dānišmand dynasty founded a state in eastern Anatolia and northern Syria and contested land with the Sultanate of Rum, and Kerbogha exercised independence as the atabeg of Mosul.^{[citation needed]}

First Crusade (1095–1099)

During the First Crusade, the fractured states of the Seljuks were generally more concerned with consolidating their own territories and gaining control of their neighbours than with cooperating against the crusaders. The Seljuks easily defeated the People's Crusade arriving in 1096, but they could not stop the progress of the army of the subsequent Princes' Crusade, which took important cities such as Nicaea (İznik), Iconium (Konya), Caesarea Mazaca (Kayseri), and Antioch (Antakya) on its march to Jerusalem (Al-Quds). In 1099 the crusaders finally captured the Holy Land and set up the first Crusader states. The Seljuks had already lost Palestine to the Fatimids, who had recaptured it just before its capture by the crusaders.^{[citation needed]}

After pillaging the County of Edessa, Seljukid commander Ilghazi made peace with the Crusaders. In 1121 he went north towards Georgia and with supposedly up to 250 000 – 350 000 troops, including men led by his son-in-law Sadaqah and Sultan Malik of Ganja, he invaded the Kingdom of Georgia.^[50][51] David IV of Georgia gathered 40,000 Georgian warriors, including 5,000 monaspa guards, 15,000 Kipchaks, 300 Alans and 100 French Crusaders to fight against Ilghazi's vast army. At the Battle of Didgori on August 12, 1121, the Seljuks were routed, being run down by pursuing Georgian cavalry for several days afterward. The battle helped the Crusader states, which had been under pressure from Ilghazi's armies. The weakening of the main enemy of the Latin principalities also benefitted the Kingdom of Jerusalem under King Baldwin II.^{[citation needed]}

Second Crusade (1147–1149)

During this time conflict with the Crusader states was also intermittent, and after the First Crusade increasingly independent atabegs would frequently ally with the Crusader states against other atabegs as they vied with each other for territory. At Mosul, Zengi succeeded Kerbogha as atabeg and successfully began the process of consolidating the atabegs of Syria. In 1144 Zengi captured Edessa, as the County of Edessa had allied itself with the Artuqids against him. This event triggered the launch of the Second Crusade. Nur ad-Din, one of Zengi's sons who succeeded him as atabeg of Aleppo, created an alliance in the region to oppose the Second Crusade, which landed in 1147.^{[citation needed]}

Decline

Ahmad Sanjar fought to contain the revolts by the Kara-Khanids in Transoxiana, Ghurids in Afghanistan and Qarluks in modern Kyrghyzstan, as well as the nomadic invasion of the Kara-Khitais in the east. The advancing Kara-Khitais first defeated the Eastern Kara-Khanids, then followed up by crushing the Western Kara-Khanids, who were vassals of the Seljuks at Khujand. The Kara-Khanids turned to their Seljuk overlords for assistance, to which Sanjar responded by personally leading an army against the Kara-Khitai. However, Sanjar's army was decisively defeated by the host of Yelu Dashi at the Battle of Qatwan on September 9, 1141. While Sanjar managed to escape with his life, many of his close kin including his wife were taken captive in the battle's aftermath. As a result of Sanjar's failure to deal with the encroaching threat from the east, the Seljuk Empire lost all its eastern provinces up to the river Syr Darya, and vassalage of the Western Kara-Khanids was usurped by the Kara-Khitai, otherwise known as the Western Liao in Chinese historiography.^[52]

Conquest by Khwarezm and the Ayyubids

In 1153, the Ghuzz (Oghuz Turks) rebelled and captured Sanjar. He managed to escape after three years but died a year later. The atabegs, such as the Zengids and Artuqids, were only nominally under the Seljuk Sultan, and generally controlled Syria independently. When Ahmad Sanjar died in 1157, this fractured the empire even further and rendered the atabegs effectively independent.^{[citation needed]}

1. Khorasani Seljuks in Khorasan and Transoxiana. Capital: Merv
2. Kermani Seljuks
3. Sultanate of Rum (or Seljuks of Turkey). Capital: Iznik (Nicaea), later Konya (Iconium)
4. Atabeghlik of the Salghurids in Fars
5. Atabeghlik of Eldiguzids (Atabeg of Azerbaijan^[53]) in Iraq and Azerbaijan.^[54] Capital: Nakhchivan^[55] (1136–1175), Hamadan (1176–1186), Tabriz^[56] (1187–1225)
6. Atabeghlik of Bori in Syria. Capital: Damascus
7. Atabeghlik of Zangi in Al Jazira (Northern Mesopotamia). Capital: Mosul
8. Turcoman Beghliks: Danishmendis, Artuqids, Saltuqids and Mengujekids in Asia Minor

After the Second Crusade, Nur ad-Din's general Shirkuh, who had established himself in Egypt on Fatimid land, was succeeded by Saladin. In time, Saladin rebelled against Nur ad-Din, and, upon his death, Saladin married his widow and captured most of Syria and created the Ayyubid dynasty.^{[citation needed]}

On other fronts, the Kingdom of Georgia began to become a regional power and extended its borders at the expense of Great Seljuk. The same was true during the revival of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia under Leo II of Armenia in Anatolia. The Abbasid caliph An-Nasir also began to reassert the authority of the caliph and allied himself with the Khwarezmshah Takash.^{[citation needed]}

For a brief period, Togrul III was the Sultan of all Seljuk except for Anatolia. In 1194, however, Togrul was defeated by Takash, the Shah of Khwarezmid Empire, and the Seljuk Empire finally collapsed. Of the former Seljuk Empire, only the Sultanate of Rûm in Anatolia remained.^{[citation needed]}

As the dynasty declined in the middle of the thirteenth century, the Mongols invaded Anatolia in the 1260s and divided it into small emirates called the Anatolian beyliks. Eventually one of these, the Ottoman, would rise to power and conquer the rest.^{[citation needed]}

Legacy

The Seljuks were educated in the service of Muslim courts as slaves or mercenaries. The dynasty brought revival, energy, and reunion to the Islamic civilization hitherto dominated by Arabs and Persians.

The Seljuks founded universities and were also patrons of art and literature. Their reign is characterized by Persian astronomers such as Omar Khayyám, and the Persian philosopher al-Ghazali. Under the Seljuks, New Persian became the language for historical recording, while the center of Arabic language culture shifted from Baghdad to Cairo.^[57]

List of sultans of the Seljuk Empire

#	Laqab	Throne name	Reign	Marriages	Succession right
1	Rukn ad-Dunya wa ad-Din رکن الدنیا والدین,	Toghrul-Beg	1037–1063	1) Altun Jan Khatun (2) Aka Khatun (3) Fulana Khatun (daughter of Abu Kalijar) (4) Seyyidah Khatun (daughter of Al-Qa'im, Abbasid caliph) (5) Fulana Khatun (widow of Chaghri Beg)	son of Mikail (grandson of Seljuk)
2	Diya ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Adud ad-Dawlah ضياء الدنيا و الدين عضد الدولة	Alp Arslan	1063–1072	1) Aka Khatun (widow of Toghrul I) (2) Safariyya Khatun (daughter of Yusuf Qadir Khan, Khagan of Kara-Khanid) (3) Fulana Khatun (daughter of Smbat Lorhi) (4) Fulana Khatun (daughter of Kurtchu bin Yunus bin Seljuk)	son of Chaghri
3	Muizz ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Jalal ad-Dawlah معز الدین جلال الدولہ	Malik-Shah I	1072–1092	1) Turkan Khatun (daughter of Ibrahim Tamghach Khan, Khagan of Western Kara-Khanid) (2) Zubeida Khatun (daughter of Yaquti ibn Chaghri) (3) Safariyya Khatun (daughter of Isa Khan, Sultan of Samarkand) (4) Fulana Khatun (daughter of Romanos IV Diogenes)	son of Alp Arslan
4	Nasir ad-Dunya wa ad-Din ناصر الدنیا والدین	Mahmud I	1092–1094		son of Malik-Shah I
5	Rukn ad-Dunya wa ad-Din رکن الدنیا والدین	Barkiyaruq	1094–1105		son of Malik-Shah I
6	Rukn ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Jalal ad-Dawlah رکن الدنیا والدین جلال الدولہ	Malik-Shah II	1105		son of Barkiyaruq
7	Ghiyath ad-Dunya wa ad-Din غیاث الدنیا والدین	Tapar	1105–1118	1) Nisandar Jihan Khatun (2) Gouhar Khatun (daughter of Isma'il bin Yaquti) (3) Fulana Khatun (daughter of Aksungur Beg)	son of Malik-Shah I
8	Mughith ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Jalal ad-Dawlah مُغيث الدنيا و الدين جلال الدولة	Mahmud II	1118–1131	1) Mah-i Mulk Khatun (died 1130) (daughter of Sanjar) (2) Amir Siti Khatun (daughter of Sanjar) (3) Ata Khatun (daughter of Ali bin Faramarz)	son of Muhammad I
9	Muizz ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Adud ad-Dawlah مُعز الدنيا و الدين جلال الدولة	Sanjar	1118–1153	1) Turkan Khatun (daughter of Muhammad Arslan Khan, Khagan of Western Kara-Khanid) (2) Rusudan Khatun (daughter of Demetrius I of Georgia) (3) Gouhar Khatun (daughter of Isma'il bin Yaquti, widow of Tapar) (4) Fulana Khatun (daughter of Arslan Khan, a Qara Khitai prisoner)	son of Malik-Shah I
10	Ghiyath ad-Dunya wa ad-Din غیاث الدنیا والدین	Dawud	1131–1132	Gouhar Khatun (daughter of Masud)	son of Mahmud II
11	Rukn ad-Dunya wa ad-Din رکن الدنیا والدین	Toghrul II	1132–1135	1) Mumine Khatun (mother of Arslan-Shah) (2) Zubeida Khatun (daughter of Barkiyaruq)	son of Muhammad I
12	Ghiyath ad-Dunya wa ad-Din غیاث الدنیا والدین	Masud	1135–1152	1) Gouhar Nasab Khatun (daughter of Sanjar) (2) Zubeida Khatun (daughter of Barkiyaruq, widow of Toghrul II) (3) Mustazhiriyya Khatun (daughter of Qawurd) (4) Sufra Khatun (daughter of Dubais) (5) Arab Khatun (daughter of Al-Muqtafi) (6) Ummiha Khatun (daughter of Amid ud-Deula bin Juhair) (7) Abkhaziyya Khatun (daughter of David IV of Georgia) (8) Sultan Khatun (mother of Malik-Shah III)	son of Muhammad I
13	Muin ad-Dunya wa ad-Din مُعين الدنيا و الدين	Malik-Shah III	1152–1153		son of Mahmud II
14	Rukn ad-Dunya wa ad-Din رکن الدنیا والدین	Muhammad	1153–1159	1) Mahd Rafi Khatun (daughter of Kirman-Shah) (2) Gouhar Khatun (daughter of Masud, widow of Dawud) (3) Kerman Khatun (daughter of Al-Muqtafi) (4) Kirmaniyya Khatun (daughter of Tughrul Shah, ruler of Kerman)	son of Mahmud II
15	Ghiyath ad-Dunya wa ad-Din غیاث الدنیا والدین	Suleiman-Shah	1159–1160	1) Khwarazmi Khatun (daughter of Muhammad Khwarazm Shah) (2) Abkhaziyya Khatun (daughter of David IV of Georgia, widow of Masud)	son of Muhammad I
16	Muizz ad-Dunya wa ad-Din معز الدنیا والدین	Arslan-Shah	1160–1176	1) Kerman Khatun (daughter of Al-Muqtafi, widow of Muhammad) (2) Sitti Fatima Khatun (daughter of Ala ad-Daulah) (3) Kirmaniyya Khatun (daughter of Tughrul Shah, ruler of Kerman, widow of Muhammad) (4) Fulana Khatun (sister of Izz al-Din Hasan Qipchaq)	son of Toghrul II
17	Rukn ad-Dunya wa ad-Din رکن الدنیا والدین	Toghrul III	1176–1191 1st reign	Inanj Khatun (daughter of Sunqur-Inanj, ruler of Ray, widow of Toghrul III)	son of Arslan-Shah
18	Muzaffar ad-Dunya wa ad-Din مظفر الدنیا والدین	Qizil Arslan	1191	Inanj Khatun (daughter of Sunqur-Inanj, ruler of Ray, widow of Muhammad ibn Ildeniz)	son of Ildeniz (stepbrother of Arslan-Shah)
—	Rukn ad-Dunya wa ad-Din رکن الدنیا والدین	Toghrul III	1192–1194 2nd reign		son of Arslan-Shah

v t e Great Seljuk sultans family tree
Tuqaq Temur Yalig Beg (b. ? – d. ?) Commander-in-chief of The Oghuz army Seljuk Beg (b. ? – d. ?) The founder of Seljuk dynasty Qawam al-Dawla[58] (r. 1012–1028) Buyid Governor in Kirman Arslan Yabgu (b. ? – d. 1032) Chief of Seljuk dynasty Mikail ibn Seljuk (b. ? -d. ?) The mother of Toghrul, Chaghri, Ibrahim and Artash Yûsuf Inal[59][60] Yûnus[61][62] Mûsâ Yabgu[63] (İnanç Yabgu) Abu Kalijar[58] (r. 1028–1048) Buyid Amir in Kirman Kurlu Bey[64] (r. 1069–1071) Leader of the Seljuk vassal state in Palestine Qutalmish[65] Father of the founder of Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate 1.Toghrul I (r. 1037–1063) First sultan of The Great Seljuk Empire Chaghri Beg[66] (r. 1040–1060) Governor of Khorasan Ibrahim Inal[65] Artash Inal[63] (Artāsh) Abu Ali Hasan Yabgu[63][65] Yûsuf, Kara Arslan, Abu Bakr, Umar,[67] Bori and Dawlatshah 1.Qawurd-Beg[58] Seljuk Shah of Kirman (r. 1048–1073) Kerman Seljuk Sultanate Atsiz ibn Uvaq[64] (r. 1076–1079) Amir of Dimashq Aksungur[68] (r. 1086–1094) Sultan of Aleppo 2.Suleiman[66] (r. 1063)[69] Sultan of Great Seljuk 3.Alp Arslan (r. 1063–1072) Sultan of Great Seljuk Alp Sungur Yâkūtî[66] Prince Governor of Azerbaijan Arslan Argun and Ilyas[66] Other princes Khadija Arslan[66] Princess married Abbasid caliph Al-Qa'im. Safiyya Khatun[66] Princess 2.Kerman Shah[70] (r. 1073–1074) 3.Hussain Omar Shah[70] (r. 1074) Tutush[71][72] (r. 1079–1095) Sultan of Dimashq and (r. 1094–1095) of Aleppo Turkan Khatun[73] The daughter of Tamghach Khan Ibrahim of Kara-Khanid dynasty and de facto ruler of Mahmud I 4.Malik-Shah I[74] (r. 1072–1092) Sultan of Great Seljuk Arslan-Shah (r. 1066–1083) Governor of Khorasan Doğan-Shah (r. 1083–1092) Governor of Khorasan Arslan-Argun[75] (r. 1092–1097) Governor of Khorasan Tuğrul and Böri-Bars Other princes Aisha Princess married Kara-Khanid khan Nasr Shams al-Mulk. 4.Sultan Shah[70] (r. 1074–1085) 5.Turan I Shah[70] (r. 1085–1097) Dawud and Ahmad[73][74] Other princes 5.Mahmud I[73][74][76] (r. 1092–1094) Sultan of Great Seljuk 6.Bark-Yaruq[76] (r. 1092–1104)[69] Sultan of Great Seljuk 8.Muhammad I Tapar[77] (r. 1105–1118) Sultan of Great Seljuk 9.Ahmad Sanjar[78] (r. 1118–1153) Last sultan of The Great Seljuk Tuğrul and Amîr Humâr[74] Other princes Gawhar Khatun[74] Princess married Ghaznavid sultan Mas'ud III. Sayyeda[74] Princess married Abbasid caliph Al-Mustazhir 6.Iranshah[70] (r. 1097–1101) 7.Arslan I Shah[70] (r. 1101–1142) Duqaq[72] (r. 1095–1104) Amir of Dimashq Mah-i Malak[73][74] Princess married Abbasid caliph Al-Muqtadi 7.Malik-Shah II[76] (r. 1104-1105)[69] Sultan of Great Seljuk 1.Mahmud II[79][80] (r. 1118–1131) First sultan of The Iraqi Seljuks 3.Toghrul II[79][81] (r. 1132–1134) Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks Mu'mine Khatun wife of Toghrul II until 1134 wife of İldeniz from 1136 Ildeniz (r. 1160–1175) de facto ruler Atabeg of Arslan-Shah 4.Masud[79][82] (r. 1134–1152) Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks 8.Malīk Muhammad I Shah[70] (r. 1142–1156) 9.Toghrul Shah[70] (r. 1156–1170) Tutush II & Artash[72] (Baktāsh) (r. 1104) Amir of Dimashq 2.Dawud[79] (r. 1131–1132) Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks 5.Malik-Shah III[79] (r. 1152–1153) Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks 6.Muhammad II[79] (r. 1153–1159) Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks 7.Suleiman-Shah[79] (r. 1159–1160) Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks 8.Arslan-Shah[79][83] (r. 1160–1177) Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks Nusrat al-Din Muhammad (r. 1175–1186) de facto ruler of Toghrul III Atabeg of Arslan-Shah Qizil Arslan (r. 1186-1191) de facto ruler of Toghrul III Atabeg of the Eldiguzids 10.Bahrām, 11.Arslan II Shah[70](r. 1170 - 1171) 12.Bahrām Shah[70] (r. 1171 - 1172) 13.Bahrām & Arslan II Shah[70](r. 1172–1175) 14.Bahrām Shah[70] (r. 1175) 15.Muhammad II Shah[70] (r. 1175) 16.Arslan II Shah[70] (r. 1175 - 1177) 17.Turan II Shah[70] (r. 1177–1183) 18.Muhammad II Shah[70] (r. 1183–1187) Fakhr al-Mulk Radwan[72] (r. 1095–1113) Malik of Aleppo Alp Arslan[72] (r. 1113–1114) Sultan Shah[72] (r. 1114–1117) 9.Toghrul III[79][84] (r. 1177–1191, 1192–1194) Last sultan of The Iraqi Seljuks Nusrat al-Din Abu Bakr (r. 1191–1210) de facto ruler Atabeg of the Eldiguzids Muzaffar al-Din Uzbek (r. 1210–1225) Atabeg of the Eldiguzids
Notes:

Art of the Great Seljuk Empire

Architecture and Ceramics

Various art forms were popularized during the Seljuk period, as evidenced by the vast amount of surviving artifacts.^[16] Most Seljuk arts are known to have been produced in what is modern-day Iran.^[85] However, the Seljuk sultans also encouraged artists to settle in Anatolia as part of a recolonization and reconstruction process of several cities.^[86] Many works of Seljuk art continued to be produced following the decline of the empire in the late 12th century. ^[85] In this regard, the timeline associated with the production of Seljuk art does not entirely match the political events pertaining to the empire and its eventual fall. ^[16]

Among other ceramics, the manufacture of polychrome ceramic tiles, often used as decor in architecture, were popularized during the Seljuk dynasty.^{[87] [88]} The Seljuks pioneered the use of the Minai technique, a painted and enameled polychrome overglaze for ceramics.^[88] The glazes on the Seljuk ceramics produced often ranged from a brilliant turquoise to a very dark blue.^[87] The art of Seljuk mosaic tile decorating would continue to dominate the interior of many Anatolian mosques following the period of Seljuk rule. ^[87] The Seljuks also created ceramic house models, while other ceramic forms in the Seljuk period included pottery figurines, some of them children's toys.^[89]

In the realm of architecture, mosques and madrasas were created and embellished during the period of Seljuk control. Congregational mosques were either repaired, re-built, or constructed in their entirety. ^[90] The Seljuk sultan also commissioned numerous madrasas to promote the teaching of orthodox Islamic sciences.^[85] These developments in architectural practice are coherent with the Seljuk dynasty's focus on Islam and the promotion of Muslim orthodoxy, the combining of Sufism and Sunnism. ^[85][16]

One architectural form that flourished during the Seljuk dynasty was the muqarnas.^[91] Some interpretations maintain that the earliest known examples of muqarnas were constructed during the period of Seljuk hegemony, though it also remains possible that they were being developed at the same time in North Africa. ^[91] The layering of multiple embellished cells with divergent profiles in muqarnas creates a dome that has a seemingly-insubstantial interior.^[91] The play of light on the surface enhances this visual effect. ^[91] Art historian Oleg Grabar argues that the effect of muqarnas domes embodies Qur'anic water symbolism. ^[91] Examples of muqarnas also appear in the niches of mosques built during the Seljuk empire. ^[92] Overall, the architecture attributed to the Seljuk period is characterized by elaborate decoration, much like the other arts produced under Seljuk rule. ^[93]

The Book Arts

Both secular and non-secular manuscripts were produced during the Seljuk period.^[94][95] These pieces are now limited in availability, considering their ultimate susceptibility to damage overtime. ^[96] But those manuscripts that have survived over the centuries provide insight into the Seljuk's involvement in the arts of the book.^[96] Calligraphers and illuminators were responsible for the creation of these manuscripts, though sometimes calligraphers mastered the art of both writing and illustration.^[97] By the end of the 10th century, both illuminators and calligraphers were beginning to employ various colors, styles, and writing techniques in the realm of the book arts.^[97]

The Qur'an's produced during the period of Seljuk rule evidence developments in calligraphy and other changes in how the holy text was divided. ^[97] Uniquely, calligraphers during this period frequently combined several scripts on one page of the Qur'an, such as Kufic and New Style.^[97] In addition to these changes in the text, the dawn of the Seljuk empire coincided with a newfound increase in the popularity of paper as a replacement for parchment in the Islamic world.^[98] The use of durable paper increased the production of compact, single-volume Qur'an's, whereas parchment codexes often contained multiple volumes of Qur'anic text. ^[99] Despite this development, parchment would remain popular for the production of some Qur'an's, and multi-volume pieces continued to be produced.^{[98] [97]} Illuminated borders continued to distinguish the Qur'ans produced during the Seljuk period and relative consistency was maintained with regard to their structure.^[99]

One example of a manuscript created during Seljuk rule is a thirty-volume Qur'an (juz) created c.1050, produced by only one calligrapher and illuminator (Freer Gallery of Art, District of Columbia, F2001.16a-b).^[97] As paper had just been introduced to the Islamic world, this piece is an early Islamic paper manuscript.^[98] This Qur'an is bound in brown leather, dyed in pink, decorated with gold, and offers an intricate frontispiece. ^[97] These elements imply the care that went into the production of this text and indications of frequent usage confirm that it was appreciated.^[97] It is primarily written in the vertical "New-Style" Arabic script, a sharp, vertical script.^[98] The dominant use of New Style in this folio, also referred to as "new Abbasid Script," attests to the shift from the geometric Kufic script to a more legible calligraphic style, which occurred in the 10th century.^[98] Scattered remnants of Kufic, used primarily to indicate volume and page number, also appear in the text. ^[98] The verticality of the paper in this manuscript speaks to the historic shift away from the horizontal use of paper in many Qur'ans, also a 10th century development.^[98]

Another example of a religious manuscript produced closer to the end of the period of Seljuk Rule is the Qarmathian Qur'an (dispersed folio, Arthur M. Stackler Gallery of Art, District of Columbia, S1986.65a-b).^[97] This manuscript's folios are illuminated with a gold border and thin, spiraled illustration, featuring vegetal motifs. ^[97] Despite the generous illumination, the four lines of Qur'anic text on the folio are exceptionally legible.^[97] Created between the years 1170-1200, this particular folio demonstrates the evolution of New Style, as both vocalized cursive and diacritical dots appear in this later version of the script.^[97] Only during the 13th century would New Style be replaced by the curvier proportional scripts for regular use.^[98]

A final example of a Seljuk Qur'an that has entered into scholarship is a manuscript studied in-depth by the late art historian Richard Ettinghausen.^[95] This piece was written in 1164 by Mahmud Ibn Al-Husayn and contains the entirety of the Qur'an (University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia, NEP27). ^[95] Unlike the two Seljuk Qur'ans discussed prior, this manuscript primarily contains Naskh script, another early Arabic script that replaced Kufic. ^[100] However, some Kufic calligraphy is embedded in the chapter headings. ^[95] This aspect speaks to how the inclusion of Kufic in Qur'ans became more of a decorative element overtime, often included in headings as opposed to the main body of text.^[98][97] The manuscript is large, with seventeen lines of text per two-hundred and fifteen sheets of paper.^[95] Though not all of the Qur'an is illuminated, both the beginning and the end boast elaborate illustration, with blue, gold, and white hues.^[95] Ettinghausen describes the subsequent visual effect as "brilliant."^[95] The inscriptions feature detailed rosettes, vines, medallions, and arabesques, some exclusively as decoration and others to indicate the end of particular lines of Qur'anic text.^[95]

Manuscript production during the Seljuk period was not limited to religious texts. Beyond these religious manuscripts, scientific, literary, and historical pieces were created.^[93] One example of a secular manuscript is the Nusrat al-fatrah, a historiographical and literary account of the Seljuk period written in 1200 by Imād al-Dīn (Al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation, London).^[101] Meanwhile, the scientific manuscripts produced during the Seljuk period oftentimes pertained to geography, physics, mechanics, mathematics, and astronomy.^[93] The former Seljuk city of Isfahan not only boasted twelve libraries that contained a total of twelve thousand volumes, but also had a renown observatory where scholars could record their astrological findings.^{[93] [94]} Secular manuscripts from the Seljuk empire bear illuminations that often relate to the alignment of planets and the zodiac, a couple examples of common themes.^[99]

Whether secular or non-secular, Seljuk illuminated manuscripts had enough influence as to inspire other relevant art forms, such as brass or bronze metal objects.^[97] For example, the large Qarmathian Qur'an influenced some of the inscriptions on Seljuk ceramic wares.^[97] Even mirrors, candlesticks, coins, and jugs manufactured in Anatolia during the Seljuk period would often bear occult astrological images inspired by manuscripts.^[94] Occult knowledge persisted in manuscripts produced after the decline in the Seljuk's political power in the late 12th century, as the Seljuk sultanate's influence on the book arts continued in Anatolia.^[94]

Historian Andrew Peacock demonstrates an interest in the Seljuks of Anatolia's focus on occult themes and its manifestation in the book arts.^[94] Peacock describes this finding as something that challenges the reigning view that the Seljuks were exclusively the "pious defenders of Islam" when it came to larger systems of belief.^[94] Some of the occult sciences that the Seljuks took special interest in included geomancy, astrology, alchemy. A relevant occult manuscript from a period of Seljuk influence is the Dustur al-Munajjimin, otherwise known as the "Rules of Astrologers," while another is the Daqa'iq al-Haqa'iq, or the "Fine Points of Eternal Truths."^[94] The latter text captures an interest in magic and spells, with a particular focus on calling upon spiritual beings, such as angels, through ritualistic acts (Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris, Persan 174).^[94] The text was written by a man who wrote under a pen name, "Nasiri."^[94] Interestingly, Nasiri's Daqa'iq al-Haqa'iq challenges prevailing Islamic understandings of God while encouraging piety and invoking both Sufi terms and themes.^[94] For example, while incorporating a Sufi poem, the occult text speaks of supernatural bodies and disputes what Islam considers to be the accepted number of names for God.^[94]

Examples of Seljuk Art

• 

  Seljuk stucco figurine (12th century)

• 

  Seljuk pottery head

• 

  Head of male royal figure, 12–13th century, found in Iran.

• 

  Seljuk female figurine

• 

  Seljuk female figurine

• 

  Seljuk-era art: Ewer from Herat, Afghanistan, dated 1180–1210CE. Brass worked in repousse and inlaid with silver and bitumen. British Museum.

• 

  Section of a Water Jug, Habb, 12th-13th century, Brooklyn Museum

• 

  Bowl with an Enthronement Scene,12th-13th century, Brooklyn Museum

• 

  Toghrol Tower, a 12th-century monument south of Tehran in Iran commemorating Tughril Beg.

• 

  The Kharāghān twin towers, built in 1053 in Iran, is the burial of Seljuk princes.

See also

• Nizari–Seljuk conflicts
• Anatolian Seljuks family tree
• Danishmend
• Ghaznavid Empire
• Rahat al-sudur
• Seljuk architecture
• Seljuk dynasty
• History of the Turks
• List of Turkic dynasties and countries
• List of battles involving the Seljuk Empire
• Timeline of the Sultanate of Rûm
• Timeline of the Turkic peoples (500–1300)
• Turkic migrations

Notes

References

Sources

Further reading

• Previté-Orton, C. W. (1971). The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Tetley, G. E. (2008). The Ghaznavid and Seljuk Turks: Poetry as a Source for Iranian History. Abingdon. ISBN 978-0-415-43119-4.
• Stokes, Jamie, ed. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East. New York: Facts On File. ISBN 978-0-8160-7158-6. Archived from the original on 2017-02-14.

External links

Wikisource has the text of The New Student's Reference Work article "Seljuks".

• http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/533602/Seljuq
• Houtsma, Martin Theodoor (1911). "Seljūks" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.).